Since the 19th century, various studies have been conducted on the religion of the ancient Turks. Particularly in the mid-20th century, historians such as Abdülkadir İnan, Hikmet Tanyu, İbrahim Kafesoğlu, and Harun Güngör wrote both articles and books on this subject. Among these historians, İnan and Tanyu frequently debated the nature of the religion and how its remnants should be interpreted. The first part of Tanyu’s book, "The Religious History of the Turks," was written in response to İnan’s persistent claims of “Shamanism.” Tanyu explicitly emphasized in his book that he was addressing these claims.

Apart from these two historians, Kafesoğlu’s work, "Turkish National Culture," evaluated Shamanism in terms of traditions, countering İnan’s interpretation of ongons (sacred objects) as “idols,” which led to the perception of Turks as “idol worshippers.” Additionally, Eliade’s work, "Shamanism," introduced a different perspective by defining Shamanism as a set of rituals rather than a religion.

Beyond these views, the Western intellectual and historian Jean Paul Roux, in his book "The Ancient Religion of the Turks and Mongols," prominently supported the idea that the Turks held Shamanistic beliefs, which aligns with Tanyu’s arguments.

In addition to Roux’s work, İnan’s student Bahaeddin Ögel, in his book "Turkish Mythology," wrote about the existence of many gods among the Turks, their belief that everything had a soul, and how they interpreted natural phenomena. This further supported İnan’s claims. However, Ögel’s book primarily focused on Southern Siberia and the Altai regions, offering insufficient details about the religious beliefs in Central Asia. This indicates that when discussing Shamanism, the focus should first be on Southern Siberia and the Altai, rather than Central Asia.

For instance, in İnan’s article "Shaman-Kam and His Life," included in his book "Shamanism in History and Today," he stated that shamans were not central figures in society, reinforcing the notion that Shamanism should not be considered the core of religion. A general review of İnan’s articles in the same book reveals that he often generalized certain phenomena observed in Southern Siberia and the Altai to the Huns and the Turkish Khaganate.

In our study, we will demonstrate why Shamanism cannot be considered the overarching name for the religion and will explain some rituals that have survived from ancient Turks to the present, highlighting their cultural continuity.

The Fundamentals of the Ancient Turkic Belief in "Sky God" (Gök Tengri)

Due to the "k > g" phonetic shift in Old Turkic, the term "Kök Tengri" found in the Orkhon Inscriptions is rendered as "Gök Tengri" or "Sky God" in modern Turkish. The oldest Turkic word used to signify the greatness of God was "üze." Among the ancient Turks, the belief in a creator deity referred to alternately as Gök-Tengri (Sky God) or Türk Tanrısı (Turkish God) reflects a monotheistic understanding.

In addition to their belief in a single God, various other practices, such as ancestor worship, reverence for natural forces, and death cults, supported this religious framework. They lived their lives aiming to earn the love of God and ascend to paradise (uçmağ). They attributed every event to God’s wrath or grace and feared to act against His will.

For example, in 328 CE, a Turkish ruler, upon achieving a great success, raised his arms to the sky and prayed: “O Sky (God), I give you thanks.” Similarly, the Hun ruler Liu Yuan, in the face of struggles among Chinese princes, declared: “The will of the Sky cannot be defied,” thereby emphasizing that the ultimate and sovereign power was Gök Tengri.

The term for "God" varied among Turkic communities according to regional phonetics: it was called "tangara" among the Yakuts, "teri" among the Kazan Turks, "ter" among the Soyons, "tura" or "tora" among the Chuvash, and "tenggeri" among the Mongols. Other terms such as bayat (ancient), açu (father), idi (master), ogan (almighty), and çalap (lord) primarily signified God’s attributes.

According to Kaşgarlı Mahmud, the Huns believed in Gök Tengri (Supreme God) and used the word "Tengri" to signify both "sky" and "God." Below, we will briefly discuss the aforementioned cults (belief systems).

Ancestor Worship (Atalar Kültü)

The ancient Turks, in accordance with ancestor worship, commemorated their deceased ancestors and offered sacrifices to them. They cherished every memory related to their ancestors and regarded any harm done to their graves as an act of war. The Huns, Göktürks, and Uighurs would offer sacrifices to their ancestors in caves considered sacred and often turned these places into sanctuaries.

As part of this tradition, various items belonging to the deceased, such as horses, utensils, swords, and daggers, were buried alongside them. Additionally, the Turks combined ancestor worship with a belief in the spiritual forces of nature.

Belief in Natural Forces

The ancient Turks believed that natural elements such as fire, trees, mountains, and others possessed protective qualities and even harbored spirits. For instance, among the Göktürks and Tobas, the timing of sacrificial rituals was determined based on the movement of stars. Following these sacrificial ceremonies, they would plant a “Birch Tree” (Kayın Ağacı) in the area, transforming it into a sacred grove. The Birch Tree, symbolizing fertility and life, was regarded as the most sacred tree.

They interpreted thunder as an expression of Gök Tengri’s (Sky God’s) wrath. As a synthesis of the fundamental aspects of ancient Turkic beliefs, the concepts of Turkic Cosmology (perception of the universe) and Turkic Cosmogony (creation) were also prominent.

Cosmology (Perception of the Universe)

Within the framework of the Gök Tengri (Sky God) belief, which served as the general religion of the Turks, a cosmological understanding developed that attributed distinct names and meanings to various elements of the universe, such as the sky, stars, space, planets, the shape and naming of the Earth, the atmosphere, and the inhabited world. The Turks perceived the sky as a dome or a tent. In the Oghuz Khan Epic, it is stated: “Let the sky be our tent.” They depicted the sky as having nine layers and referred to the constant rotation of the celestial dome as the “Sky Crank” (Gök Çıkrığı). This concept of nine layers, along with the significance of the number nine, was evident in shamanic rituals and the ceremonies for selecting a ruler. They also determined the number of planets to be nine.

In shamanic rituals, shamans would ascend to the heavens, reaching the Moon on the seventh layer, the Sun on the eighth, and God on the ninth. The void or space was called “kalıg.” It was believed that non-human beings resided in this kalıg.

Kaşgarlı Mahmud referenced this by stating, “The Kerkes bird descends from the high kalıg.” In the Compendium of Turkic Dialects (Dîvânü Lügâti't-Türk), the word kalıg is associated with the meanings of "sky" and "heaven." In Kutadgu Bilig (The Wisdom of Royal Glory), the term appears as "Kalıg Birds."

Regarding celestial bodies, in pre-Islamic Turkic beliefs, the Sun symbolized the East, while the Moon represented the West. In various Turkish epics, the Sun was perceived as feminine, and the Moon as masculine. Other celestial bodies, such as planets and stars, were also given specific names, and the ancient Turks believed in their spiritual essence. Sacrificial rituals were scheduled according to the movements of the stars.

In Dîvânü Lügâti't-Türk, the planet Jupiter (Müşteri) was called Erentüz, the constellation Libra (Mizan) was Kara-Kuş, the Pleiades (Süreyya) was Ülker, the Seven Sisters were Yetigen, the North Star (Polaris) was Temür-Kazzuk, and Mars (Merih) was Bakır-Sokum. Among these, the North Star held the greatest importance. The ancient Turks regarded it as the “pillar of the sky,” and shamans were required to pass by the North Star during their ascents in rituals. For this reason, it was also referred to as the “gate of the sky.”

The ancient Turks had two perspectives on the concept of the Earth. The first was the “mortal world” (ölüglü), referring to this earthly realm. The second was the afterlife, called the “Eternal World” (Menggü Acun). The term Acun was used by the ancient Turks as a synonym for the Earth, encompassing all living beings. Those focused on worldly matters were referred to as “Acunlar,” and the state of being worldly as “Acunluk.” They envisioned the Earth as being rectangular, like their state, and this perception was reflected in inscriptions as “tört bulung” (four sides).

What is Shamanism?

Shamanism, originating from Southern Siberia and the Altai regions, is a collection of rituals that contain traces of paganism and the ancient Turkic religion. The word "Shaman," which has Tungusic origins, was first recorded in the 17th century and was used in place of Kam, a term in the ancient Turkic religion for healers, sorcerers, and herbalists. Following this period, Shamanism began to be erroneously defined as a comprehensive representation of the ancient Turkic religion.

At this point, Eliade states:

"Throughout the vast region covering central and northern Asia, the magical and religious life of society revolves around the shaman. This does not mean that he is the only individual interacting with the sacred, nor that all religious activities are exclusively under his control. In many tribes, alongside the shaman, there is also a priest who offers sacrifices, and additionally, every head of a household is responsible for the religious life within their home."

As can be seen, it is difficult to define Shamanism as a religion. From another perspective, beliefs in elements such as Fire, Water, Earth, Mountains, the Surface, and the Upper World—present in Shamanistic traditions—also exist in the Gök Tengri belief system, which is considered the ancient Turkic religion. In the Gök Tengri faith, the Kam, referred to as a Shaman, acted as a healer and did not occupy a central position in the religion. However, in Altai Shamanism, Shamans held significant positions in society.

From all this, it becomes clear that the ancient religion of the Turks was Gök Tengri, and Shamans or Kams were merely functionaries within this religious framework. Another point of contention is that Shamans were not as prevalent in Central Asia as they were in the Altai region; the two regions assigned Shamans different roles. For this reason, studies on Shamanism tend to focus primarily on Altai Shamanism.

So, how did one become a Shaman? We will now explore this question.

How to Become a Shaman?

In ancient Turkic society, the population was generally divided into three groups: the ruling class, nobles (beyler), and families. Shamans, however, did not belong to a distinct class. Consequently, becoming a shaman did not require being part of a particular social class. While it may seem that being born into a shamanic lineage was a prerequisite, this was generally not sufficient. Even if one came from a shamanic family, they could not become a shaman unless they experienced early-life "shamanic crises," as they were called. These crises included:

• Experiencing an illness resembling epilepsy, where one would faint and foam at the mouth.
• Possessing spiritual traits similar to those of mystics (Abdals).
• Sleeping during the day and having vivid dreams.
• Avoiding games and activities with peers.
• Dreaming of heaven and hell and feeling as though one's soul was being torn apart.

Individuals displaying all these traits were apprenticed to a shaman, where they would learn the craft. During this apprenticeship, they were taught by a master shaman about good and evil spirits, the healing properties of various herbs, and the purposes of sacrifices. Until this learning process was complete, they were not allowed to wear the shamanic robe or cap, nor could they lead any rituals. After completing their training, a ceremony called Kam Baksı Toy (Shaman Induction Ceremony) was held to officially recognize their status as a shaman.

During the ceremony, the apprentice would recount the spirits they had learned about and explain which animals they would sacrifice to these spirits and why. Some examples include:

• To appease Altay Sabaray, who caused boils in humans, the shaman would serve him, his wife, and daughters by releasing decorated martins as offerings.
• To protect people from the evils of Kun Hatun, the shaman would sacrifice a red-spotted animal and perform a ritual wearing the heart and liver of the offering around their neck.
• To heal illnesses sent by Dah Talı Hatun, the shaman would sacrifice a black cow.
• To cure the illnesses of blacksmiths, the shaman would sacrifice a red cow in honor of Kıtay Baksı Toyon and place its head in a blacksmith's forge.
• To alleviate mental illnesses, the shaman would free nine mice and nine pigeons as offerings to Tamik Hatun, in addition to sacrificing a red cow.

These examples demonstrate that shamans, as described in Kutadgu Bilig and Dîvânü Lügâti't-Türk (DLT), primarily played the roles of herbalists and healers. Using chants and sacrifices, they treated illnesses. In this context, calling Shamanism a religion would be an overstatement.

Thus, it is more appropriate to consider the ancient Turkic religion as Gök-Tanrı (Sky God) and view shamans as functionaries within this religious framework. Furthermore, some of the rituals practiced in ancient Turkic times have persisted to the present day.

Rituals from Ancient Turkic Beliefs Still Practiced Today

As previously mentioned, the ancient Turks believed that natural forces possessed spirits. Based on this belief, certain trees were attributed special meanings and were thought to reach the heavens. For example, the birch tree (Kayın Ağacı), with its deep roots extending underground and its many long branches, was believed to symbolize fertility. Shamans also used birch trees during rituals to connect with the North Star (Kutup Yıldızı). For this reason, people would tie cloths to birch trees to make requests from God. This tradition persists today in the form of tying cloths, keys, or other items to sacred sites or trees as a form of prayer.

Another ritual, known in ancient times as kut koyma (imparting "kut"), is now practiced as lead pouring. In modern times, lead pouring is performed to bring good fortune, ward off the evil eye, improve difficult circumstances, or protect against harm. Similarly, in ancient Turkic traditions, this ritual was believed to bring happiness and peace to an individual following the kut koyma ceremony.

Another ancient ritual, known as göçürme (transference), is also still practiced today. In this ritual, when someone fell ill, an animal was led around the person, symbolizing the transfer of illness away from them. Today, a similar practice involves circling an object, such as money, over a person’s head when they are believed to be afflicted by the evil eye or when experiencing pain. While performing these actions, the person recites prayers, believing that the illness or affliction is removed.

Finally, the concept of kut itself provides an example of continuity. In ancient Turkic traditions, certain families were considered to have received kut (divine favor) from God and were referred to as "blessed families" (kutlu aile). In modern times, phrases such as “kutlu olsun” ("may it be blessed")—used to celebrate someone’s birthday—reflect this ancient concept, as does the word "kutlamak" ("to celebrate"), which has survived as a legacy of this tradition.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Shamanism cannot be considered a religion. It should instead be evaluated as a collection of rituals, and it is difficult to claim that it was widely practiced among all Turks. Shamanism, which emerged and was prominent between Southern Siberia and the northern Altai regions, was not as prevalent in Central Asia. Furthermore, as the term "shaman" only appeared in the 17th century, labeling the ancient Turks as Shamanists is an inaccurate approach. Shamans did not form a distinct class within society, and their primary role was to heal the sick. Therefore, placing Shamanism at the center of the Gök Tengri religion is another overreach.

The terms kam (shaman) and otacı (healer) in Dîvânü Lügâti't-Türk (DLT) and Kutadgu Bilig (KB) clearly indicate their primary function. Considering that religious ceremonies were conducted not by kams but by rulers, it becomes even more evident that Shamans cannot be placed at the heart of the religion. In my view, the religion should be called Gök Tengri, while Shamans or kams should be seen as intermediaries between God and humans, akin to spiritual doctors within society.

Because of their intermediary role, Shamans cannot be regarded as prophets. Just as people today consult religious scholars or imams for protection against the evil eye or spiritual ailments, the ancient Turks turned to these individuals in similar circumstances. For this reason, Shamans or kams fulfilled the combined roles of spiritual and physical healers, akin to today’s clergy and doctors. Finally, just as Islam has specific practices referred to as religious rituals, the scope of Shamanism in ancient Turkic traditions also represents the rituals of that religion rather than being a religion itself.